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.. This file is in Python ReStructuredText format - it can be formatted
2
.. into HTML or text. In the future we plan to extract the example commands
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.. and automatically test them.
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.. This text was previously on the wiki at
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.. http://bazaar.canonical.com/IntroductionToBzr
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.. but has been moved into the source tree so it can be kept in sync with
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.. the source and possibly automatically checked.
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current for bzr 0.0.6pre, July 2005
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*NOTE* For a more current and user-editable version of this
9
document, see the wiki at http://bazaar.canonical.com/IntroductionToBzr
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If you are already familiar with decentralized version control, then
19
please feel free to skip ahead to "Introducing Yourself to Bazaar". If,
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on the other hand, you are familiar with version control but not
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decentralized version control, then please start at "How DVCS is
22
different." Otherwise, get some coffee or tea, get comfortable and get
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The purpose of version control
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==============================
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Odds are that you have worked on some sort of textual data -- the sources
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to a program, web sites or the config files that Unix system
30
administrators have to deal with in /etc. The chances are also good that
31
you have made some sort of mistake that you deeply regretted. Perhaps you
32
deleted the configuration file for your mailserver or perhaps mauled the
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source code for a pet project. Whatever happened, you have just deleted
34
important information that you would desperately like to get back. If this
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has ever happened to you, then you are probably ready for Bazaar.
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Version control systems (which I'll henceforth call VCS) such as
38
Bazaar give you the ability to track changes for a directory by turning
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it into something slightly more complicated than a directory that we call
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a **branch**. The branch not only stores how the directory looks right
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now, but also how it looked at various points in the past. Then, when you
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do something you wish you hadn't, you can restore the directory to the way
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it looked at some point in the past.
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Version control systems give users the ability to save changes to a
46
branch by "committing a **revision**". The revision created is essentially
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a summary of the changes that were made since the last time the tree was
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These revisions have other uses as well. For example, one can comment
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revisions to record what the recent set of changes meant by providing an
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optional log message. Real life log messages include things like "Fixed
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the web template to close the table" and "Added sftp suppport. Fixes #595"
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We keep these logs so that if later there is some sort of problem with
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sftp, we can figure out when the problem probably happened.
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Many Version Control Systems (VCS) are stored on servers. If one wants to
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work on the code stored within a VCS, then one needs to connect to the
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server and "checkout" the code. Doing so gives one a directory in which a
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person can make changes and then commit. The VCS client then connects to
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the VCS server and stores the changes. This method is known as the
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The centralized model can have some drawbacks. A centralized VCS requires
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that one is able to connect to the server whenever one wants to do version
70
control work. This can be a bit of a problem if your server is on some other
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machine on the internet and you are not. Or, worse yet, you **are** on the
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internet but the server is missing!
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Decentralized Version Control Systems (which I'll call DVCS after this
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point) deal with this problem by keeping branches on the same machine as
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the client. In Bazaar's case, the branch is kept in the same place as
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the code that is being version controlled. This allows the user to save
78
his changes (**commit**) whenever he wants -- even if he is offline. The
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user only needs internet access when he wants to access the changes in
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someone else's branch that are somewhere else.
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A common requirement that many people have is the need to keep track of
84
the changes for a directory such as file and subdirectory changes.
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Performing this tracking by hand is a awkward process that over time
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becomes unwieldy. That is, until one considers version control tools such
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as Bazaar. These tools automate the process of storing data by creating
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a **revision** of the directory tree whenever the user asks.
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Version control software such as Bazaar can do much more than just
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storage and performing undo. For example, with Bazaar a developer can
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take the modifications in one branch of software and apply them to a
93
related branch -- even if those changes exist in a branch owned by
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somebody else. This allows developers to cooperate without giving
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write access to the repository.
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Bazaar remembers the ''ancestry'' of a revision: the previous revisions
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that it is based upon. A single revision may have more than one direct
99
descendant, each with different changes, representing a divergence in the
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evolution of the tree. By branching, Bazaar allows multiple people to
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cooperate on the evolution of a project, without all needing to work in
102
strict lock-step. Branching can be useful even for a single developer.
104
Introducing yourself to Bazaar
105
==============================
107
Bazaar installs a single new command, **bzr**. Everything else is a
108
subcommand of this. You can get some help with ``bzr help``. Some arguments
109
are grouped in topics: ``bzr help topics`` to see which topics are available.
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One function of a version control system is to keep track of who changed
112
what. In a decentralized system, that requires an identifier for each
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author that is globally unique. Most people already have one of these: an
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email address. Bazaar is smart enough to automatically generate an email
115
address by looking up your username and hostname. If you don't like the
116
guess that Bazaar makes, then three options exist:
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1. Set an email address via ``bzr whoami``. This is the simplest way.
120
To set a global identity, use::
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% bzr whoami "Your Name <email@example.com>"
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If you'd like to use a different address for a specific branch, enter
125
the branch folder and use::
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% bzr whoami --branch "Your Name <email@example.com>"
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#. Setting the email address in the ``~/.bazaar/bazaar.conf`` [1]_ by
130
adding the following lines. Please note that ``[DEFAULT]`` is case
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email=Your Name <email@isp.com>
136
As above, you can override this settings on a branch by branch basis
137
by creating a branch section in ``~/.bazaar/locations.conf`` and
138
adding the following lines::
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[/the/path/to/the/branch]
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email=Your Name <email@isp.com>
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#. Overriding the two previous options by setting the global environment
145
variable ``$BZR_EMAIL`` or ``$EMAIL`` (``$BZR_EMAIL`` will take
146
precedence) to your full email address.
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.. [1] On Windows, the users configuration files can be found in the
149
application data directory. So instead of ``~/.bazaar/branch.conf``
150
the configuration file can be found as:
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``C:\Documents and Settings\<username>\Application Data\Bazaar\2.0\branch.conf``.
152
The same is true for ``locations.conf``, ``ignore``, and the
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``plugins`` directory.
15
Bazaar-NG is a version control tool. It manages trees of files and subdirectories. In particular, it records *revisions* of trees, representing their state at a particular point in time, and information about those revisions and their relationships. Recording and retrieving tree revisions is useful in several ways if you are writing software or documents or doing similar creative work.
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* Keeping previous revisions lets you go back if you make a mistake or want to check your work. It acts as a high-level unlimited undo.
19
* By recording comments on every revision, you produce an annotated history of the project, describing what, who, why, and when.
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* Using a version control tool can be an aid to thinking about a project: getting to a stable state at regular intervals and then writing a description of what you did is an easy way to stay organized and on track.
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Bazaar-NG remembers the *ancestry* of a revision: the previous revisions that it is based upon. A single revision may have more than one direct descendant, each with different changes, representing a divergence in the evolution of the tree.
24
By branching, Bazaar-NG allows multiple people to cooperate on the evolution of a project, without all needing to work in strict
25
lock-step. Branching can be useful even for a single developer.
27
Bazaar-NG installs a single new command,
28
*bzr*. Everything else is a subcommand of this. You can get
29
some help with ``bzr help``. There will be more in the future.
33
Introducing yourself to bzr
34
===========================
36
One function of a version control system is to keep track of who
37
changed what. In a distributed system that requires an identifier for
38
each author that is globally unique. Most people already have one of
39
these: an email address.
41
[after 0.0.4] To tell bzr which email address to use, put it in the file
42
``$HOME/.bzr.conf/email``, or the environment variable ``$BZREMAIL``.
43
If neither of these are set, bzr will use the ``$EMAIL``
44
variable, or use your username and hostname.
46
To check this has taken effect, or if you forget your own name, use
47
the ``whoami`` ("who am i?") command::
51
Some people want to avoid sharing their email address so as not to
52
get spam. bzr will never
53
disclose your email address unless you tell it to by publishing an
54
archive or transmitting a changeset. It's recommended that you do use
55
a real address, so that people can contact you about your work, but
56
it's not required. You can use an address which is obfuscated, which
57
bounces, or which goes through an anti-spam service such as spamgourmet.com.
158
History is by default stored in the .bzr directory of the branch. In a
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future version of Bazaar, there will be a facility to store it in a
160
separate repository, which may be remote.
162
We create a new branch by running ``bzr init`` in an existing directory::
65
History is by default stored in the .bzr directory of the branch.
66
There will be a facility to store it in a separate repository, which
67
may be remote. We create a new branch by running *bzr init* in
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an existing directory::
169
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/home/mbp/work/bzr.test/tutorial
176
As with CVS, there are three classes of file: unknown, ignored, and
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versioned. The **add** command makes a file versioned: that is, changes
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to it will be recorded by the system::
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As for CVS, there are three classes of file: unknown, ignored, and
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versioned. The *add* command makes a file versioned: that is,
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changes to it will be recorded by the system::
180
87
% echo 'hello world' > hello.txt
191
If you add the wrong file, simply use ``bzr remove`` to make it
192
unversioned again. This does not delete the working copy in this case,
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though it may in others [2]_.
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.. [2] ``bzr remove`` will remove the working copy if it is currently
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versioned, but has no changes from the last committed version. You
197
can force the file to always be kept with the ``--keep`` option to
198
``bzr remove``, or force it to always be deleted with ``--force``.
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All history is stored in a branch, which is just an on-disk directory
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containing control files. By default there is no separate repository or
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database as used in svn or svk. You can choose to create a repository if
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you want to (see the ``bzr init-repo`` command). You may wish to do this
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if you have very large branches, or many branches of a moderately sized
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You'll usually refer to branches on your computer's filesystem just by
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giving the name of the directory containing the branch. bzr also supports
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accessing branches over http and sftp, for example::
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% bzr log http://bazaar-vcs.org/bzr/bzr.dev/
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% bzr log sftp://bazaar-vcs.org/bzr/bzr.dev/
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By installing bzr plugins you can also access branches using the rsync
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See the `Publishing your branch`_ section for more about how to put your
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branch at a given location.
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% bzr add -v hello.txt
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If you add the wrong file, simply use ``bzr remove`` to make
98
it unversioned again. This does not delete the working copy.
223
101
Reviewing changes
224
102
=================
226
Once you have completed some work, you will want to **commit** it to the
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version history. It is good to commit fairly often: whenever you get a
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new feature working, fix a bug, or improve some code or documentation.
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It's also a good practice to make sure that the code compiles and passes
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its test suite before committing, to make sure that every revision is a
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known-good state. You can also review your changes, to make sure you're
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committing what you intend to, and as a chance to rethink your work before
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you permanently record it.
235
Two bzr commands are particularly useful here: **status** and **diff**.
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The **status** command tells you what changes have been made to the
241
working directory since the last revision::
104
Once you have completed some work, you will want to *commit*
105
it to the version history. It is good to commit fairly often:
106
whenever you get a new feature working, fix a bug, or improve some
107
code or documentation. It's also a good practice to make sure that
108
the code compiles and passes its test suite before committing, to make
109
sure that every revision is a known-good state. You can also review
110
your changes, to make sure you're committing what you intend to, and
111
as a chance to rethink your work before you permanently record it.
113
Two bzr commands are particularly useful here: *status* and
114
*diff*. The *status* command
115
shows a listing with one line per file, indicating whether it has been
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Added, Deleted, Modified, or Renamed in the current revision. Unknown
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files are shown as '?'. With the ``--all`` option, the status
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command also shows unmodified versioned files as '.', and ignored
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``bzr status`` hides "boring" files that are either unchanged or ignored.
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The status command can optionally be given the name of some files or
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directories to check.
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The **diff** command shows the full text of changes to all files as a
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standard unified diff. This can be piped through many programs such as
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''patch'', ''diffstat'', ''filterdiff'' and ''colordiff''::
124
The *diff* command shows the full text of changes to all
125
files as a standard unified diff. This can be piped through many
126
programs such as ``patch``, ``diffstat``,
127
``filterdiff`` and ``colordiff``::
259
=== added file 'hello.txt'
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--- hello.txt 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
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+++ hello.txt 2005-10-18 14:23:29 +0000
130
*** added file 'hello.txt'
266
With the ``-r`` option, the tree is compared to an earlier revision, or
267
the differences between two versions are shown::
269
% bzr diff -r 1000.. # everything since r1000
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% bzr diff -r 1000..1100 # changes from 1000 to 1100
272
The ``--diff-options`` option causes bzr to run the external diff program,
273
passing options. For example::
275
% bzr diff --diff-options --side-by-side foo
277
Some projects prefer patches to show a prefix at the start of the path
278
for old and new files. The ``--prefix`` option can be used to provide
280
As a shortcut, ``bzr diff -p1`` produces a form that works with the
281
command ``patch -p1``.
136
With the ``-r`` option, the tree is compared to an earlier
139
[TODO: options to run external diff; to get context diff or other
140
formats; to diff only selected files; to compare two historical
284
145
Committing changes
285
146
==================
287
When the working tree state is satisfactory, it can be **committed** to
288
the branch, creating a new revision holding a snapshot of that state.
293
The **commit** command takes a message describing the changes in the
294
revision. It also records your userid, the current time and timezone, and
295
the inventory and contents of the tree. The commit message is specified
296
by the ``-m`` or ``--message`` option. You can enter a multi-line commit
297
message; in most shells you can enter this just by leaving the quotes open
298
at the end of the line.
148
When the working tree state is satisfactory, it can be
149
*committed* to the branch, creating a new revision holding a
150
snapshot of that state.
152
The ``commit`` command takes a message describing the changes
153
in the revision. It also records your userid, the current time and
154
timezone, and the inventory and contents of the tree. The commit
155
message is specified by the ``-m`` or ``--message`` option.
156
You can enter a multi-line commit message; in most shells you can
157
enter this just by leaving the quotes open at the end of the line. ::
302
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% bzr commit -m "added my first file"
304
You can also use the ``-F`` option to take the message from a file. Some
305
people like to make notes for a commit message while they work, then
306
review the diff to make sure they did what they said they did. (This file
307
can also be useful when you pick up your work after a break.)
309
Message from an editor
310
----------------------
312
If you use neither the ``-m`` nor the ``-F`` option then bzr will open an
313
editor for you to enter a message. The editor to run is controlled by
314
your ``$VISUAL`` or ``$EDITOR`` environment variable, which can be overridden
315
by the ``editor`` setting in ``~/.bazaar/bazaar.conf``; ``$BZR_EDITOR`` will
316
override either of the above mentioned editor options. If you quit the
317
editor without making any changes, the commit will be cancelled.
319
The file that is opened in the editor contains a horizontal line. The part
320
of the file below this line is included for information only, and will not
321
form part of the commit message. Below the separator is shown the list of
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files that are changed in the commit. You should write your message above
323
the line, and then save the file and exit.
325
If you would like to see the diff that will be committed as you edit the
326
message you can use the ``--show-diff`` option to ``commit``. This will include
327
the diff in the editor when it is opened, below the separator and the
328
information about the files that will be committed. This means that you can
329
read it as you write the message, but the diff itself wont be seen in the
330
commit message when you have finished. If you would like parts to be
331
included in the message you can copy and paste them above the separator.
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Marking bugs as fixed
334
---------------------
336
Many changes to a project are as a result of fixing bugs. Bazaar can keep
337
metadata about bugs you fixed when you commit them. To do this you use the
338
``--fixes`` option. This option takes an argument that looks like this::
340
% bzr commit --fixes <tracker>:<id>
342
Where ``<tracker>`` is an identifier for a bug tracker and ``<id>`` is an
343
identifier for a bug that is tracked in that bug tracker. ``<id>`` is usually
344
a number. Bazaar already knows about a few popular bug trackers. They are
345
bugs.launchpad.net, bugs.debian.org, and bugzilla.gnome.org. These trackers
346
have their own identifiers: lp, deb, and gnome respectively. For example,
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if you made a change to fix the bug #1234 on bugs.launchpad.net, you would
348
use the following command to commit your fix::
350
% bzr commit -m "fixed my first bug" --fixes lp:1234
352
For more information on this topic or for information on how to configure
353
other bug trackers please read `Bug Tracker Settings`_.
355
.. _Bug Tracker Settings: ../user-reference/index.html#bug-tracker-settings
360
If you give file or directory names on the commit command line then only
361
the changes to those files will be committed. For example::
363
% bzr commit -m "documentation fix" commit.py
365
By default bzr always commits all changes to the tree, even if run from a
366
subdirectory. To commit from only the current directory down, use::
161
[TODO: commit message interactively, through an editor or from a
164
[TODO: commit only selected files, including renamed/added/deleted
371
169
Removing uncommitted changes
372
170
============================
374
172
If you've made some changes and don't want to keep them, use the
375
**revert** command to go back to the previous head version. It's a good
376
idea to use ``bzr diff`` first to see what will be removed. By default the
377
revert command reverts the whole tree; if file or directory names are
378
given then only those ones will be affected. ``bzr revert`` also clears the
379
list of pending merges revisions.
173
``revert`` command to go back to the previous head version. It's a
174
good idea to use ``bzr diff`` first to see what will be removed.
175
By default the revert command reverts the whole tree; if file or
176
directory names are given then only those ones will be affected.
177
revert also clears the list of pending merges revisions.
388
Many source trees contain some files that do not need to be versioned,
389
such as editor backups, object or bytecode files, and built programs. You
390
can simply not add them, but then they'll always crop up as unknown files.
391
You can also tell bzr to ignore these files by adding them to a file
392
called ``.bzrignore`` at the top of the tree.
394
This file contains a list of file wildcards (or "globs"), one per line.
395
Typical contents are like this::
186
Many source trees contain some files that do not need to be
187
versioned, such as editor backups, object or bytecode files, and built
188
programs. You can simply not add them, but then they'll always crop
189
up as unknown files. You can also tell bzr to ignore these files by
190
adding them to a file called ``.bzrignore`` at the top of the
193
This file contains a list of file wildcards (or "globs"), one
194
per line. Typical contents are like this::
402
If a glob contains a slash, it is matched against the whole path from the
403
top of the tree; otherwise it is matched against only the filename. So
404
the previous example ignores files with extension ``.o`` in all
405
subdirectories, but this example ignores only ``config.h`` at the top level
406
and HTML files in ``doc/``::
201
If a glob contains a slash, it is matched against the whole path
202
from the top of the tree; otherwise it is matched against only the
203
filename. So the previous example ignores ``*.o`` in all
204
subdirectories, but this example ignores only config.h at the top
205
level and HTML files in ``doc/``::
411
To get a list of which files are ignored and what pattern they matched,
412
use ``bzr ignored``::
210
To get a list of which files are ignored and what pattern they matched, use ``bzr ignored``::
418
It is OK to have either an ignore pattern match a versioned file, or to
419
add an ignored file. Ignore patterns have no effect on versioned files;
420
they only determine whether unversioned files are reported as unknown or
423
The ``.bzrignore`` file should normally be versioned, so that new copies
424
of the branch see the same patterns::
216
It is OK to have an ignore pattern match a versioned file, or to
217
add an ignored file. Ignore patterns have no effect on versioned
218
files; they only determine whether unversioned files are reported as
221
The ``.bzrignore`` file should normally be versioned, so that new
222
copies of the branch see the same patterns::
426
224
% bzr add .bzrignore
427
225
% bzr commit -m "Add ignore patterns"
433
As an alternative to editing the ``.bzrignore`` file, you can use the
434
``bzr ignore`` command. The ``bzr ignore`` command takes filenames and/or
435
patterns as arguments and then adds them to the ``.bzrignore`` file. If a
436
``.bzrignore`` file does not exist the ``bzr ignore`` command will
437
automatically create one for you, and implicitly add it to be versioned::
444
Just like when editing the ``.bzrignore`` file on your own, you should
445
commit the automatically created ``.bzrignore`` file::
447
% bzr commit -m "Added tags to ignore file"
453
There are some ignored files which are not project specific, but more user
454
specific. Things like editor temporary files, or personal temporary files.
455
Rather than add these ignores to every project, bzr supports a global
456
ignore file in ``~/.bazaar/ignore`` [1]_. It has the same syntax as the
457
per-project ignore file.
460
228
Examining history
461
229
=================
466
The ``bzr log`` command shows a list of previous revisions. The ``bzr log
467
--forward`` command does the same in chronological order to get most
468
recent revisions printed at last.
470
As with ``bzr diff``, ``bzr log`` supports the ``-r`` argument::
472
% bzr log -r 1000.. # Revision 1000 and everything after it
473
% bzr log -r ..1000 # Everything up to and including r1000
474
% bzr log -r 1000..1100 # changes from 1000 to 1100
475
% bzr log -r 1000 # The changes in only revision 1000
234
The ``log`` command shows a list of previous revisions.
478
237
Branch statistics
479
238
=================
481
The ``bzr info`` command shows some summary information about the working
482
tree and the branch history.
240
The ``bzr info`` command shows some summary information about
241
the working tree and the branch history.
485
244
Versioning directories
486
245
======================
488
bzr versions files and directories in a way that can keep track of renames
489
and intelligently merge them::
247
bzr versions files and directories in a way that can keep track of
248
renames and intelligently merge them::
492
251
% echo 'int main() {}' > src/simple.c
256
% bzr add src/simple.c
502
262
Deleting and removing files
503
263
===========================
505
You can delete files or directories by just deleting them from the working
506
directory. This is a bit different to CVS, which requires that you also
509
``bzr remove`` makes the file un-versioned, but may or may not delete the
510
working copy [2]_. This is useful when you add the wrong file, or decide that
511
a file should actually not be versioned.
265
You can delete files or directories by just deleting them from the
266
working directory. This is a bit different to CVS, which requires
267
that you also do *cvs remove*.
269
*bzr remove* makes the file un-versioned, but does not
270
delete the working copy. This is useful when you add the wrong file,
271
or decide that a file should actually not be versioned. ::
516
274
% bzr remove -v hello.txt
526
If you remove the wrong file by accident, you can use ``bzr revert`` to
533
Often rather than starting your own project, you will want to submit a
534
change to an existing project. To do this, you'll need to get a copy of
535
the existing branch. Because this new copy is potentially a new branch,
536
the command is called **branch**::
285
Often rather than starting your own project, you will want to
286
submit a change to an existing project. You can get a copy of an
287
existing branch by copying its directory, expanding a tarball, or by a
288
remote copy using something like rsync. You can also use bzr to fetch
289
a copy. Because this new copy is potentially a new branch, the
290
command is called *branch*::
538
% bzr branch http://bazaar-vcs.org/bzr/bzr.dev
292
% bzr branch http://bazaar-ng.org/bzr/bzr.dev
541
This copies down the complete history of this branch, so we can do all
542
operations on it locally: log, annotate, making and merging branches.
543
There will be an option to get only part of the history if you wish.
545
You can also get a copy of an existing branch by copying its directory,
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expanding a tarball, or by a remote copy using something like rsync.
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This copies down the complete history of this branch, so we can
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do all operations on it locally: log, annotate, making and merging
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branches. There will be an option to get only part of the history if
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Following upstream changes
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303
==========================
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You can stay up-to-date with the parent branch by "pulling" in their
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You can stay up-to-date with the parent branch by *pulling*
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After this change, the local directory will be a mirror of the source. This
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includes the ''revision-history'' - which is a list of the commits done in
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this branch, rather than merged from other branches.
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This command only works if your local (destination) branch is either an
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older copy of the parent branch with no new commits of its own, or if the
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most recent commit in your local branch has been merged into the parent
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Merging from related branches
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=============================
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If two branches have diverged (both have unique changes) then ``bzr
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merge`` is the appropriate command to use. Merge will automatically
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calculate the changes that exist in the branch you're merging from that
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are not in your branch and attempt to apply them in your branch.
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If there is a conflict during a merge, 3 files with the same basename
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are created. The filename of the common base is appended with ".BASE",
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the filename of the file containing your changes is appended with
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".THIS" and the filename with the changes from the other tree is
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appended with ".OTHER". Using a program such as kdiff3, you can now
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comfortably merge them into one file. In order to commit you have to
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rename the merged file (".THIS") to the original file name. To
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complete the conflict resolution you must use the resolve command,
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which will remove the ".OTHER" and ".BASE" files. As long as there
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exist files with .BASE, .THIS or .OTHER the commit command will
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% kdiff3 file.BASE file.OTHER file.THIS
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[**TODO**: explain conflict markers within files]
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Publishing your branch
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======================
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You don't need a special server to publish a bzr branch, just a normal web
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server. Just mirror the files to your server, including the .bzr
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directory. One can push a branch (or the changes for a branch) by one of
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the following three methods:
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* The best method is to use bzr itself to do it.
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% bzr push sftp://servername.com/path/to/directory
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(The destination directory must already exist unless the
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``--create-prefix`` option is used.)
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* Another option is the ``rspush`` plugin that comes with BzrTools, which
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uses rsync to push the changes to the revision history and the working
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* You can also copy the files around manually, by sending a tarball, or using
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rsync, or other related file transfer methods. This is usually less safe
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than using ``push``, but may be faster or easier in some situations.
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Moving changes between trees
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============================
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It happens to the best of us: sometimes you'll make changes in the wrong
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tree. Maybe because you've accidentally started work in the wrong directory,
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maybe because as you're working, the change turns out to be bigger than you
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expected, so you start a new branch for it.
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To move your changes from one tree to another, use
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% bzr merge --uncommitted OLDDIR
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This will apply all of the uncommitted changes you made in OLDDIR to NEWDIR.
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It will not apply committed changes, even if they could be applied to NEWDIR
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with a regular merge. The changes will remain in OLDDIR, but you can use ``bzr
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revert OLDDIR`` to remove them, once you're satisfied with NEWDIR.
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NEWDIR does not have to be a copy of OLDDIR, but they should be related.
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The more different they are, the greater the chance of conflicts.
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This only works if your local branch includes only changes from the
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parent branch. Otherwise, the branches are said to have *diverged*,
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and they must be merged instead.
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tutorial.txt
